Wetenschappelijk bewijs opgevoerd om het gevaar van medicinaal gebruik van ClO2 aan te tonen

Toth, G.P., Long, R.E., Mills, T.S., and Smith, M.K. (1990) Effects of chlorine dioxide on the developing rat brain. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 31 (1): 29-44. DOI:10.1080/15287399009531435.

Male and female Long-Evans rat pups, exposed to an oral dose of 14 mg chlorine dioxide (CIO2)/kg/d (postnatal d 1-20), were examined for effects on brain development and for changes in thyroid activity. Body weight reductions were observed on postnatal (pn) d 11, 21, and 35. Forebrain weight and protein content were decreased on pnd 21 and 35, as were the DNA content on d 35 and the number of dendritic spines on cerebral cortical pyramidal cells, a marker for synapse formation. Otherwise, cell proliferation in the forebrain, cerebellum, and olfactory bulbs was normal, as were migration and aggregation of neuronal cells in three areas of the cerebral cortex. Histopathology of the forebrain, cerebellum, and brainstem showed no gross lesions, loss of myelin, or change in the cells staining positive for Nissl substance. Serum T3 and T4 levels, as well as hepatic mitochondrial alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase activity, were unchanged by CIO2 treatment. The results indicated that CIO2 may have central neurotoxic potential. No underlying antithyroid activity was evident.

Commentaar CLO2.nl: NIET VAN TOEPASSING!!!

• De concentratie ClO2 die deze ratten ontvingen, lag iets hoger dan de concentratie bij MMS (14 mg chlorine dioxide (CIO2)/kg tegenover 9 mg/ kg lichaamsgewicht),
• maar de exposure duurde 20x zo lang (postnatal d 1-20)... Als ik het goed heb begrepen tenminste!!!
• Onderzocht werden pasgeborenen: rattenpups

LD50 Rat oral 94 mg/kg body weight (CLO2.nl deze waarde ligt 10x boven MMS-protocol)
International Programme on Chemical Safety's Concise

International Chemical Assessment Documents Number 37: Chlorine dioxide (2002). Available from, as of December 13, 2017: https://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/cicad/en/cicad37.pdf

Given the reactive nature of chlorine dioxide, it seems likely that health effects would be restricted to local responses. There are no quantitative human data, but chlorine dioxide is very toxic by single inhalation exposure in rats. There were no mortalities following exposure to 16 ppm (45 mg/m3 ) for 4 h, although pulmonary oedema and emphysema were seen in all animals exposed to 16–46 ppm (45–129 mg/m3 ) chlorine dioxide, the incidence increasing in a dose-related manner. The calculated mean LC50 was 32 ppm (90 mg/m3 ). In another study, ocular discharge, nosebleeds, pulmonary oedema, and death occurred at 260 ppm (728 mg/m3 ) for 2 h. Chlorine dioxide is toxic when administered in solution by a single oral dose to rats; at 40 and 80 mg/kg body weight, there were signs of corrosive activity in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. The calculated oral LD50 was 94 mg/kg body weight.

Commentaar CLO2.nl: dit is informatie om rekening mee te houden!

• Deze waarde van 94 mg/kg Lg ligt qua hoeveelheid 8x boven MMS-protocol (12,2 mg/Kg Lg).
• De gebruikte verdunning was 0,2%, dus 2000 mg per liter. Deze waarde ligt qua concentratie 0,740x lager MMS-protocol (2,7 g/liter). 

Frequentie van toediening: éénmalig. De gebruikte concentratie 2 g/liter ligt iets lager dan bij MMS, maar de hoeveelheid die deze ratten binnen kregen, ligt 8x zo hoog. Uit deze informatie kun je afleiden wat de gevolgen kunnen zijn als je een overdosis chloordioxide gebruikt. Een gevaar dat bij doe-het-zelf-dokteren al snel op de loer ligt.

Orme, J., Taylor, D.R., Laurie, D., and Bull, R.J. (1985). Effects of chlorine dioxide on thyroid function in neonatal rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 15 (2): 315-322. DOI: 10.1080/15287398509530657.

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), an alternative to chlorine for drinking water disinfection, has been implicated as a potential antithyroid agent (Bercz et al., 1982). Because antithyroid compounds are known to alter neurobehavioral development, the present study was designed to determine if perinatal exposure to ClO2 affects behavioral activity in rat pups. The activity cage system was designed to monitor the development of locomotor activity of a litter of pups between ages 14-21 d. Pups were exposed to ClO2 either directly, by gavaging 14 mg/kg . from age 5 to 20 d, or indirectly via their dams' drinking water in concentrations of 2, 20, or 100 mg/l from gestation to weaning (21 d postpartum). Although the activity of the indirectly exposed group was not different from controls, the gavaged group showed significantly depressed activity for d 18 and 19 postpartum. The T4 levels of the 21-d-old pups was significantly depressed in the 100-mg/l ClO2 group. The gavaged pups showed an even greater T4 depression, which correlates with their activity levels. These data support the hypothesis that ClO2 affects thyroid function and suggests that a slight depression in T4 can result in developmental delays.

Commentaar CLO2.nl: NIET VAN TOEPASSING!!!

• De laagste concentratie ClO2 die deze rattenpups ontvingen, komt overeen met gebruik van MMS.
• Bij MMS drink je deze concentratie slechts 1 keer. Deze rattenpups ontvingen deze concentratie gedurende meedere weken.
• Het betreft hier pasgeborenen: pups

/GENOTOXICITY/ Epidemiological studies have shown an association between consumption of disinfected drinking water and adverse health outcomes. The chemicals used to disinfect water react with occurring organic matter and anthropogenic contaminants in the source water, resulting in the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). The observations that some DBPs are carcinogenic in animal models have raised public concern over the possible adverse health effects for humans. Here, the modulation of liver cytochrome P450-linked monooxygenases (MFO) and the genotoxic effects in erythrocytes of Cyprinus carpio fish exposed in situ to surface drinking water in the presence of disinfectants, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), chlorine dioxide (ClO(2)) and peracetic acid (PAA), were investigated in winter and summer. A complex induction/suppression pattern of CYP-associated MFOs in winter was observed for all disinfectants. For example, a 3.4- to 15-fold increase was recorded of the CYP2B1/2-linked dealkylation of penthoxyresorufin with NaClO (10 days) and PAA (20 days). In contrast, ClO(2) generated the most notable inactivation, the CYP2E1-supported hydroxylation of p-nitrophenol being decreased up to 71% after 10 days' treatment. In summer, the degree of modulation was modest, with the exception of CYP3A1/2 and CYP1A1 supported MFOs (62% loss after 20 days PAA). The micronucleus (MN) induction in fish circulating erythrocytes was also analyzed as an endpoint of genotoxic potential in the same fish population. Significant increases of MN induction were detected at the latest sampling time on fish exposed to surface water treated with chlorinate-disinfectants, both in winter (NaClO) and summer (NaClO and ClO(2)), while no effect was observed in fish exposed to PAA-treated water. These results show that water disinfection may be responsible for harmful outcomes in terms of MFO perturbation and DNA damage; if extrapolated to humans, they ultimately offer a possible rationale for the increased urinary cancer risk recorded in regular drinking water consumers.

PMID:22001235
Canistro D et al; Mutat Res 729 (1-2): 81-9 (2012)

Commentaar CLO2.l: NIET van toepassing.

• Als je CLO2 toevoegt aan water ter desinfectie, ontstaan er ongewenste neven-producten, chlorieten. Chlorieten zijn slecht voor je gezondheid. En het effect van die nevenprodukten DBP's werden hier onderzocht. Niet ClO2.

/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Chronic Exposure or Carcinogenicity/ The toxicity of chlorine dioxide (0, 1, 10, 100, 1000 mg/L) was studied in rats.

• After 9 months of treatment, the osmotic fragility of red blood cells was decreased in all groups.
• After 9 months, erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were decreased in all groups.
• Chlorine dioxide admininistration in drinking water for 3 months inhibited the incorporation of (3)H-thymidine into nuclei of rat testes. This inhibition was observed in the kidney of rats treated with 100 mg chlorine dioxide/L. The incorporation in small intestinal nuclei was increased in rats treated with both 10 and 100 mg chlorine dioxide/L.
• Body weight was decreased after 10 and 11 mo treatment.

Bron: Abdel-Rahman MS et al; J Am Coll Toxicol 3 (4): 277-84 (1984)

Commentaar CLO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• periode van inname: 9 maanden...
• 1 mg chlorine dioxide/L
• 10 mg chlorine dioxide/L
• 100 mg chlorine dioxide/L
• 1000 mg chlorine dioxide/L
• niet vergelijkbaar met een MMS-protocol.

Dit onderzoek toont m.i. aan dat langdurig/chronisch gebruik van ClO2 leidt tot gezondheidsschade. Bij gebrek aan inzage in het volledige onderzoek, valt niet te beoordelen hoeveel mg/kg LG deze ratten dagelijk binnen kregen.

Bron: International Programme on Chemical Safety's Concise International Chemical Assessment Documents Number 37: Chlorine dioxide (2002).
Available from, as of December 13, 2017: http://www.inchem.org/pages/cicads.html

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ In a series of extensive human volunteer studies on water disinfectants, groups of 10 males received aqueous chlorine dioxide in drinking-water by a range of different protocols (a sequence of rising concentrations of up to around 0.34 mg/kg body weight over a 16-day period, approximately 0.035 mg/kg body weight on every third day for 12 weeks, or approximately 3.6 x 10-5 mg aqueous chlorine dioxide/kg body weight per day daily for 12 weeks). Observations included physical examination (blood pressure, respiration rate, pulse, oral temperature, and electrocardiography), extensive blood biochemistry, hematology, and urinalysis, and the subjective recording of taste. There were no significant adverse effects recorded for any of the parameters measured.\

Commentaar CLO2.nl:  Niet van toepassing!

slechts 0.34 mg/kg body weight, dat is veel te weinig om te kunnen concluderen dat het MMS protocol veilig is.

LD50 Rat oral 292 mg/kg Lg  
The Dictionary of Substances and their Effects (DOSE)

Commentaar CLO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• Deze waarde van 292 mg/kg Lg ligt qua hoeveelheid 24x boven MMS-protocol (12,2 mg/Kg Lg).
• De gebruikte verdunning was 0,2%, dus 2000 mg per liter oftewel 2 g/liter. Deze waarde komt qua concentratie overeen met MMS-protocol (2,7 g/liter). 

Bron: Bianchine JR et al; Study of chlorine dioxide and its metabolites in man; Report: 100 pages (1981) ISS EPA-600/1-81-068; Order Number PB82-109356

The study affirmed the relative safety and tolerance of normal healthy adult males and normal healthy adult male G-6-PD-deficient individuals to daily 12 wk ingestion of 500 mL of chlorine disinfectants at a concentration of 5 mg/L. /Disinfection byproducts/

Commentaar CLO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• chlorine is toch echt iets anders dan chloordioxide. 

Harrington, R.M., Shertzer, H.G., and Bercz, J.P. (1986). Effects of chlorine dioxide on thyroid function in the African green monkey and the rat. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 19 (2): 235-242. DOI: 10.1080/152873986095309. Nog een interessante link!

In a previous study from this laboratory, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) treated drinking water depressed thyroxine (T4) levels in the African green monkey. The present study again demonstrated a decrease in T4 levels in the same species after 4 wk of oral exposure. However, after 8 wk of treatment T4 levels rebounded to above pretreatment levels, coinciding with an increase in thyroid radioiodide uptake. This T4 rebound phenomenon and increased iodide uptake may be due to a compensatory endocrinological mechanism. In rats, T4 levels dropped during the 8-wk ClO2 treatment period in a dose-dependent manner, and no rebound effect was observed. Iodide uptake values in the rat were not affected. It appears that ClO2 may have an effect on thyroid function in both species.

Commentaar CLO2.nl: NIET VAN TOEPASSING!!!

• CLO2.nl heeft geen toegang tot de complete inhoud, maar slechts tot de samenvatting. Zo beschik ik niet over informatie over de toegepaste concentratie. 4 tot 8 weken exposure is heel lang en is derhalve niet te vergelijken met chloordioxidegebruik volgens CDS protocol.
• Het gaat hier om een study over het effect van chlorine dioxide in drinkwater op de schildklier. Waarschijnlijk ging het dus om een zeer lage concentratie ClO2. De conclusie uit dit rapport is vaag. 

/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Acute Exposure/ Groups of five male Sprague-Dawley rats received approximately 0, 0.12, 0.24, or 0.48 mg aqueous chlorine dioxide/kg body weight by oral gavage. Samples of blood were taken at 15, 30, 60, and 120 minutes post-administration for analysis of glutathione and methemoglobin levels and osmotic fragility; methemoglobin formation was not observed, and the other parameters measured were only slightly affected, with no clear dose-response relationship.

Bron: International Programme on Chemical Safety's Concise International Chemical Assessment Documents Number 37: Chlorine dioxide (2002). Available from, as of December 13, 2017: http://www.inchem.org/pages/cicads.html

Commentaar CLO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• slechts 0.48 mg/kg body weight, dat is veel te weinig om te kunnen concluderen dat het MMS protocol veilig is.
• methemoglobin formation was not observed (hieruit kun je concluderen dat orale inname van een lage dosis ClO2 niet leid tot meetbare methemoglobin formation)

Bron: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement

A study found reduced red blood cell count in rats exposed to 100 mg/L of chlorine dioxide concentration in their drinking water, after 3 months.

Bron: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569048/pdf/envhper00463-0050.pdf

"Toxicity of Chlorine Dioxide in Drinking Water". International Journal of Toxicology. 3 (4): 277–284. July 1984. doi:10.3109/10915818409009082 (inactive 2020-03-23).

Commentaar ClO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• Ratten kregen een verdunning van ClO2 in water toegediend als drinkwater. Niet heel eventjes of gedurende enkele dagen, zoals MMS protocollen voorschrijven, maar 10 à 11 maanden lang. Alleen de samenvatting van dit onderzoek is nog terug te vinden op internet. pffff. Dit onderzoek verschaft geen bruikbaar inzicht voor de MMS-toepassing. Maar het heeft wel bijgedragen aan de ondermijning van ClO2 als potentieel geneesmiddel.

/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Subchronic or Prechronic Exposure/ Subchronic toxicity of chlorine dioxide was studied in the African green monkey by administration in drinking water during 30-60 days rising dose protocols. Thyroid metabolism was inhibited in animals at approximately 9.0 mg/kg/day. A significant decrease of serum thyroxine occurred after the 4th wk of exposure to 100 mg/L. The extent of thyroid suppression was dose-dependent and reversible. The selective thyroid effect of chlorine dioxide was unexplained and paradoxical, since it was rapidly reduced by oral and gastric secretions to nonoxidizing species (presumably Cl-).

Bron: PMID:7151767 Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569048
Bercz JP et al; Environ Health Perspect 46: 47-55 (1982)

Commentaar CLO2.nl: Niet van toepassing!

• 9.0 mg/kg LG is vergelijkbaar met MMS-protocollen.
• Maar 30-60 dagen inname is heel veel. De Oegandesen kregen éénmaal een hoeveelheid van 9.0 mg/kg LG
• Maar 4th wk of exposure to 100 mg/L... 100 mg/L is een concentratie die een stuk lager ligt dan de gebruikte concentratie in Oeganda. Daar staat tegenover dat de Oegandesen slechts 1 glaasje dronken met een concentratie van 2,7 g/liter deze apen continu een concentratie van 100ml/Liter dronken (grofweg omgerekend: 100 g/liter).. 

Bron: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement

Chlorine dioxide has been shown to impair thyroid function and reduce CD4⁺ count in grivet monkeys after 6 months.

Bercz JP, Jones L, Garner L, Murray D, Ludwig DA, Boston J (2010-02-25). "Subchronic toxicity of chlorine dioxide and related compounds in drinking water in the nonhuman primate". Environ. Health Perspect. 46: 47–55. doi:10.1289/ehp.824647. PMC 1569048 PMID 7151767.

Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569048

Samenvatting: Subchronic toxicities of ClO2, NaClO2, NaClO3 and NH2Cl were studied in the African Green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops).